From musket to automaton - a crazy century, part 2

    This is a continuation, start here .

    Terms used:

    Carabiner - something shortened (for shooting from two hands). Occasionally, terminology was used in which the carbine was distinguished from a full-sized rifle by the number of calibers per barrel length. With the advent of low-impulse cartridges with a caliber of approx. 5mm and automata with long trunks in the bullpup scheme, it lost its meaning, because in the family it turned out that there was no carbine at all despite the fact that officially this status was carried by several samples.

    Last time we stopped at the last quarter of the 19th century, when the armies of the leading states were armed with breech-loading rifles chambered with a metal sleeve. For the most part these were fairly sophisticated models with a sliding bolt; a significant part of them will even manage to catch the First World War, but only in the hands of the militia and the troops of the last line. From here, in fact, is a stamp about the watchman with a rifle (i.e. Berdan No. 2 rifle) in Russian culture. Indeed, in the interwar and postwar period, these weapons could be a standard for the guards of unimportant warehouses. However, the imagination most often draws a rifle in the form of a double-barreled hunting rifle, and not a rifle. Records of service for this generation of weapons were probably broken by the British rifle Henry-Martini, which is periodically found invarious terrorists to this day . Why not turn on the imagination and think about what else can be improved in rifles?

    At that time, the effectiveness of artillery and small arms was decided to be assessed according to the formula:

    E * P * n

    Where E is the energy of the bullet at the target, P is the probability of hitting the target and n is the rate of fire. This formula is very convenient even outside of military affairs, for example, in games. Say, in a network game, we often think which weapon to choose - a more lethal, but slower one, or a faster one, but a weaker one. Let us imagine that the choice lies between a self-loading “slaughter” rifle with damage 200 with a rate of fire of 100 shots / min and a machine gun with damage of 40 and a rate of fire of 600 shots / min. Then the relative power of the rifle will be 200 * 100 = 20,000, and the power of the machine gun 40 * 600 = 24,000, as we see, the machine gun is more powerful by 1/5. Now suppose that a magazine with a rifle has 10 rounds, and a machine gun has 30. Indirectly, the difference between 10 and 30 rounds increases the rate of fire of the weapon, since less time spent recharging. Therefore, then we can further assess the power of the weapon. The rifle is 20,000 * 10 = 200,000, the automaton has 24,000 * 30 = 720,000. Now, because of the magazine, the power of the automaton looks even more pronounced. However, there is another factor, namely the factor of probability of hitting. It depends on the spread and the convenience of aiming - if the camera from the first person at each shot from the machine gun will twitch, then it is clear that it will not be comparable with a rifle in accuracy. Plus, if the rifle has a convenient sight for the player with a large field of view, and the machine gun does not have it, then the latter will be the loser. Let us assume that the probability of hitting from a machine gun is 2 times less than that of a rifle. Then the power of the machine is 720,000 / 2 = 360,000, and the rifle has 200,000, as it was. It depends on the spread and the convenience of aiming - if the camera from the first person at each shot from the machine gun will twitch, then it is clear that it will not be comparable with a rifle in accuracy. Plus, if the rifle has a convenient sight for the player with a large field of view, and the machine gun does not have it, then the latter will be the loser. Let us assume that the probability of hitting from a machine gun is 2 times less than that of a rifle. Then the power of the machine is 720,000 / 2 = 360,000, and the rifle has 200,000, as it was. It depends on the spread and the convenience of aiming - if the camera from the first person at each shot from the machine gun will twitch, then it is clear that it will not be comparable with a rifle in accuracy. Plus, if the rifle has a convenient sight for the player with a large field of view, and the machine gun does not have it, then the latter will be the loser. Let us assume that the probability of hitting from a machine gun is 2 times less than that of a rifle. Then the power of the machine is 720,000 / 2 = 360,000, and the rifle has 200,000, as it was. than with a rifle. Then the power of the machine is 720,000 / 2 = 360,000, and the rifle has 200,000, as it was. than with a rifle. Then the power of the machine is 720,000 / 2 = 360,000, and the rifle has 200,000, as it was.

    These simple examples show the influence of factors in the formula on the final result, i.e. on the effectiveness of weapons. Therefore, to increase the effectiveness of the rifle, we must increase one of the factors in the formula. It was impossible to radically increase the probability of hitting at that time –– rifles and so were supplied with good quality mechanical sights. Increase energy from the target, too, hardly. The kinetic energy is calculated using the formula m * V ^ 2/2, where m is the mass of the bullet, and V is its speed. It is impossible to increase the mass of the bullet due to the weight limits of the ammunition and the requirements of the optimal bullet geometry. Further increase in the powder charge or barrel length did not cause a significant increase in the speed of the bullet. In this situation, it remains to increase only one thing - the rate of fire. And I must say that this way the weapon moved the entire 20th century.

    The obvious way to increase the rate of fire - to accelerate the loading of weapons. For example, to equip a rifle with some mechanism that will automatically feed cartridges when reloading. Such a mechanism is called a shop. Do not confuse the clip:

    image

    and a weapon shop:

    image

    And, for example, charging one with another:

    image

    The presence of a shop gave its name to the whole next generation of rifles - shop rifles. It can be noted that now this phrase is primarily understood as a little later samples, under the cartridge with smokeless powder. How to organize the automatic filing of ammunition?

    Historically, the first solution to the problem of filing cartridges was a revolver. I remind you that the main constructive part of the revolver is the drum in which the cartridges are located. Chambers of the drum serve as chamber for firing. The first patent for a revolver was taken by an American A. Wheeler from Concord (yes, the one near 111 asylum) in 1818. Soon in England production of revolvers with a flintlock and revolver guns based on them was launched. However, prior to the invention of the capsule, it was a cumbersome system, although it cannot be said that with the capsule something became much faster. One of the first Koltov revolvers in charge and action:


    On the basis of this model were made in t.ch. and rifles and shotguns. Only the appearance of unitary cartridges for a metal sleeve improved the charging situation. It would seem, why was it that at that moment not to use revolving rifles in the army? Indeed, as a curiosity, it can be noted that the idea of ​​a revolver rifle was sent to the competition for a new magazine rifle for the tsarist army, in which the Mosin rifle won. In fact:

    1. The revolver itself is overweight due to the drum. In the case of powerful rifle ammunition, the weapon will have an inconvenient center of gravity, and it will generally be heavy.
    2. The obturation is very bad due to the fragile connection of the drum with the barrel.
    3. Quick shooting is inaccurate. An essential part of the revolver is self-cocking shooting - with an unlocked trigger pressing the trigger will coax the trigger. However, this requires an appropriate effort, because of which the accuracy of shooting will be low.
    4. Long recharge drum. After each shot the sleeve does not go anywhere, it must be removed with a ramrod. A mini-cleaning rod mounted directly on a revolver for this purpose is an integral part of the design. Charging the cartridge takes a relatively long time. For these reasons, the resource of a revolver as a weapon of self-defense is estimated exactly in the capacity of its store, since after the cartridges are used up, the time for reloading is unlikely to be provided.

    For these reasons, the revolvers played a historical role in the sense of melee weapons, replacing the single-shot pistols far inferior to them, but the revolver rifles of the revolution did not produce. A completely different, fundamentally best type of store was needed.

    And the first successful store was a sub-barrel store. In 1848, the American Hunt developed a magazine (replicating in the terminology of those times) rifle “Volition”, which never saw the serial production; on its basis, by 1860, B. T. Henry, who worked at the company of O. Winchester, created his own rifle, which in the future gained popularity during the American civil war. Revolutionism was in the store in the form of a tube, which was placed under the barrel; he held 15 rounds. For ejection of a spent cartridge case, delivery of a new cartridge and cocking it was enough to pull the trigger guard away from you and put it back in place. Loading and shooting procedure:


    As you can see, the rifle provided excellent rate of fire for its era. After the civil war, Winchester changed the name of the company to the Winchester Repeating Arms Company (literally the Winchester Repeating Weapon Company) and produced subsequent rifles of a similar system under the brand name. The most popular was the model of 1866, which became a symbol of the Wild West and was purchased in small batches by some European countries. In particular, Ottoman Turkey purchased 50 thousand Winchester rifles, which managed to take part in the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-78, proving their unequivocal superiority over the remake single-shot rifles of Krnka, which were armed with the royal army. However, with regard to the rifles of Berdan number 2, then not yet received on mass armament, Winchester rifles were probably worse. None of the European states so completely re-armed with magazine-mounted rifles due to the weak cartridge and the flaws of the bolt. However, Switzerland turned out to be the first country in the world to put a rifle on mass weapons - the Vetterly system with the usual longitudinal-sliding gate, but a tubular under-barrel magazine, in 1869. For its time, this step proved to be rash - the cartridge was adopted weak, lateral ignition. Already on the example of the Swiss Vetterly, the flaws of the under-barrel shop were revealed: but in a tubular grenade shop, in 1869. For its time, this step proved to be rash - the cartridge was adopted weak, lateral ignition. Already on the example of the Swiss Vetterly, the flaws of the under-barrel shop were revealed: but in a tubular grenade shop, in 1869. For its time, this step proved to be rash - the cartridge was adopted weak, lateral ignition. Already on the example of the Swiss Vetterly, the flaws of the under-barrel shop were revealed:

    1. Unsuccessful location of the center of gravity of the rifle.
    2. Charging a magazine with one cartridge requires as much time as charging one cartridge of a single-shot rifle or so. From this it follows that the store in battle must be protected for crucial moments, and in ordinary situations use a rifle as a single-shot one. When this crucial moment comes in battle, however, it is never clear, and an empty store will be a demoralizing factor. It turns out that the increase in the rate of fire is only apparent.

      Let us trust in the experiments - in the course of a detailed study of the grenade shops in the tsarist army, it was found out that the practical significance of such a store would be small. It is quite possible to temporarily increase the rate of single-shot rifles to the level of the grenade shop, if the soldiers simply hold several cartridges in their left hand in the girth of the forearm.
    3. Low security store. The attentive reader probably noticed that in the podstvolnom shop, the cartridge is sticking its tip to the back of the next one. With a sufficiently strong impact of a rifle, it is not excluded that the capsule and the explosion of the entire store immediately. Experiments on a scarecrow showed that the shooter will at least lose a few fingers of his left hand, not counting severe burns and injuries.

    The way out is obvious - the adoption of side ignition cartridges. Actually, this is why the first Vetterly magazine rifle, which was put into service in the army, used a low-powered side-ignition cartridge. How else to solve this issue? I suggest to dream.

    The problem was subsequently solved:

    1. Making the capsule small, and the tip of the bullet flat. In turn, the flat nose of a bullet adversely affects ballistics.
    2. Increased taper of the liner. In this case, the bullet nose will simply be buried somewhere below the capsule, or into the groove around the capsule. This solution was used in the French Lebel rifle, however, very recklessly. Incredibly tapered cartridge:

    image

    originally adopted for the magazine rifle, very soon made it almost impossible to design reliable automatic weapons under it, although the era of machine guns and automatic rifles had arrived.

    The advantages of the grenade shop were:

    1. Large capacity. OK. 6-7 cartridges in the store itself, plus one on the feeder, plus one delivered - this is quite a lot in total.
    2. Compactness, absence of parts protruding for the weapon profile.
    3. Relative simplicity of adaptation to old single shot rifles.

    Although the adoption of this first generation of magazine rifles is not fully justified, it was fueled by an arms race and increased international tensions in the last quarter of the 19th century. Nevertheless, the money spent on them as a whole went nowhere - this type of weapon did not have time to participate in any major conflict; not counting the Lebel French rifle, of course, but it was a kind of transitional pattern to the next generation. Typical samples of the first generation of magazine rifles:

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    The last generation of magazine rifles was destined for a long life - undergoing more or less large-scale modernizations, they went through both world wars and remained in service until the middle of the 20th century. We see them all the time in games (with the Mosin rifle, the German K98k, the British Lee-Enfield, the American Springfield 1904, several games go out a year) and popular culture. Actually, the situation preceding their arming was as follows:

    1. There was a well-worked longitudinal sliding gate.
    2. The cartridges were filled with traditional black powder; The potential for improved ballistic weapons was very limited.
    3. The design of the store turned out to be the most problematic part, since simply did not exist uniquely her best option.

    Above, I have already mentioned the Lebel rifle several times. The reader could well have the impression of her as a kind of dead-end version, but such words would be wrong.
    Driven by an arms race and paranoia over the imminent war with Germany, by the mid-1880s, the French military decided to adopt a new weapon. In service were already single-shot rifles Gra arr. 1874, which were actively modernized by equipping the A. Kropachek system with an under-barrel magazine (Austria). Similar work was carried out in other countries. Although this weapon could be called quite modern, the French moved on and introduced a rifle, arr. 1886, it is the Lebel rifle. The main difference from the previous model was the use of a cartridge with smokeless powder instead of black; bullet caliber decreased from 11 to 8mm. This made it possible to increase the speed of the bullet from 450 m / s to 615 m / s and increase the ammunition load. The increased energy of gunpowder required an improved locking system — the bolt was now locked with two lugs instead of more simply locking with the bolt handle in the old rifles. Because when a bullet moves in the barrel, substantial energy is spent on the friction of the bullet against the barrel, the traditional lead bullet was ripped off from rifling at such speeds. To solve this problem, the blunt bullet was equipped with a nickel silver sheath (80% copper, 20% nickel). Many people know the word Melchior from the Soviet tableware for serving - spoons, forks, etc., made under silver. Although by itself nickel silver looks like silver and can be quite used for the manufacture of dishes similar to silver, in reality everything is much more interesting - the Soviet nickel silver dishes most often additionally underwent silvering. Actually Because of this, it may give the impression of the high cost of such a shell for a bullet. Although nickel silver itself is not a cheap alloy (nickel is a fairly expensive metal), at that time its cost was completely suitable for the manufacture of bullet shells. Already later, in total conflicts of the 20th century, nickel silver shells are a thing of the past, giving way to cheaper, but still not penny alloys. The shell significantly increased the penetrating ability of the bullet, since lead metal is very soft. Soon, by international conventions, shellless bullets were banned as inhumane in war, because All-lead bullet is very easily deformed, causing more severe damage. at that time, its value was quite suitable for the manufacture of bullet shells. Already later, in total conflicts of the 20th century, nickel silver shells are a thing of the past, giving way to cheaper, but still not penny alloys. The shell significantly increased the penetrating ability of the bullet, since lead metal is very soft. Soon, by international conventions, shellless bullets were banned as inhumane in war, because All-lead bullet is very easily deformed, causing more severe damage. at that time, its value was quite suitable for the manufacture of bullet shells. Already later, in total conflicts of the 20th century, nickel silver shells are a thing of the past, giving way to cheaper, but still not penny alloys. The shell significantly increased the penetrating ability of the bullet, since lead metal is very soft. Soon, by international conventions, shellless bullets were banned as inhumane in war, because All-lead bullet is very easily deformed, causing more severe damage.

    However, most modern military bullets quite easily fall apart and lose their shell.

    Turning off the magazine, shooting with charging one cartridge each, turning on the magazine and shooting the ammunition from it with a Lebel rifle:


    Speaking about this rifle, it can be noted that the revolution in this case was made not so much by the rifle itself as by the cartridge used in it. This is a good reason to move on to the subject of gunpowder.

    Black smoke powder, used since the Middle Ages, traditionally consisted of about 75% potassium nitrate, 15% coal and 10% sulfur. The approximate equation of its combustion can be represented by the reaction:

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    From the reaction equation it can be seen that many gaseous products are formed; Moreover, if we recall that 1 mol of gaseous substance under normal conditions takes 22.4 liters (and taking into account thermal expansion, when conditions differ significantly from normal, it is much more), then the propelling force of the powder becomes clear. I remind you that the main property of gunpowder is the ability to burn in an enclosed space, emitting a large amount of gases.

    If you don’t want to know anything about getting black powder and hate chemistry, you shouldn’t look
    Процесс производства черного пороха был отработан за века, и качество средневекового пороха оставалось высоким даже по современным меркам. Компоненты смеси можно назвать умеренно-доступными. Самородная сера — минерал не редкий, уголь получали обугливанием древесины. С селитрой вопрос стоял острее, т.к. в Европе месторождений селитры не было (практически единственное крупное месторождение нитрата калия находится в Индии, отсюда и его историческое название «индийская селитра»). Для получения селитры различные биологические отбросы собирали в кучи и смешивали со строительным мусором. Основным компонентом строительного мусора тогда был мел (CaCO3), т.к. известь широко использовалась в строительстве ( Ca(OH)2+CO2(из воздуха)=CaCO3+H2O ). В ходе биологического разложения органический азот переходил в неорганический, и в куче накапливался нитрат кальция – Ca(NO3)2, который оставалось извлечь оттуда водой, а полученный раствор упарить. Последним нужным компонентом был поташ (K2CO3), который получался путем промывания водой золы растений; исторически Россия всегда была одним из главных поставщиков поташа в Европу. При смешивании его раствора с раствором нитратом кальция происходила обменная реакция

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    После отстаивания и фильтрования оставался раствор калийной селитры. Ближе к индустриальной эпохе роль начали играть естественные источники нитратов вне Европы, но еще революционные войны шли на селитре, полученной из биологических отходов.

    Actually, what was bad black powder?

    1. Having a low hygroscopicity, he still soaked. The soaked and dried powder no longer possessed the same properties.
    2. After the shot, gunpowder created a cloud of smoke. One shot was blown away without problems, but with massive volleys the troops were literally shrouded in clouds of smoke.
    3. By the end of the 19th century, its potential for improvement was almost exhausted. The only way to improve the properties of gunpowder was to increase the content of coal to the detriment of sulfur. The last types of black powder used in the barrel artillery were extremely low in sulfur; I am even sure that from ordinary fire such powder would burn very faintly.

    Attempts to improve black powder began from the end of the 18th century. The first major attempt belonged to the well-known French chemist K. Berthollet, the discoverer of bertolet salt (KClO3). He replaced the traditional composition of nitrate on bertoletova salt; at the same time, not only the power of the powder increased, but also its sensitivity to impact, which caused the first and last plant for its production to explode (1788) during the pressing procedure.

    Subsequently, none of the mineral compounds could replace black powder in military affairs. The closest thing in this sense was F. Khebler (Switzerland), who developed mixtures of traditional black powder with ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3). By itself, ammonium nitrate directly affects the slow burning - with its thermal decomposition produces a lot of water. But if it is a very fast burning or detonation, he is capable of a great deal. However, Hebler was late for literally a decade - by the time he actively advertised his compositions, the first representatives of smokeless powder had already appeared. However, the power of the cartridges made by Hebler and equipped with a mixture of black powder with ammonium nitrate, approximately corresponded to the power of the first generation of smokeless powder.

    The ability of black powder to burning is due to the fact that it includes both an oxidizing agent (nitrate) and a reducing agent (coal and sulfur); but the properties of the oxidizing agent and the reducing agent may well simultaneously manifest two different groups in the same substance. These substances include smokeless powder, a product of the development of organic chemistry. In 1846, the following case drew the attention of the Swiss chemist K. Shenbane: in the course of working with a nitrous mixture, it had to be wiped with either a rag or a robe that spontaneously caught fire during the drying process. In fact, such cases do not represent something exceptional and occasionally continue to happen to this day. Under the action of the nitrating mixture on cellulose from cotton gown, its nitration occurs and various cellulose nitrates are formed. After drying, it remains to heat the nitrated piece of fabric, so that it spontaneously ignites, nitrocellulose contains both an oxidizing agent (nitro groups) and a reducing agent (cellulose skeleton). This also implies the possibility of burning nitrocellulose in a closed volume, similar to gunpowder. For several decades, there have been several attempts to create powder based on nitrocellulose, most often in mixtures with something mineral. Although hunting varieties of such powders were produced in small batches, an acceptable type of gunpowder was not developed. The main problem was the low homogeneity of nitrocellulose, since it largely retained the original fibrous structure. For several decades, there have been several attempts to create powder based on nitrocellulose, most often in mixtures with something mineral. Although hunting varieties of such powders were produced in small batches, an acceptable type of gunpowder was not developed. The main problem was the low homogeneity of nitrocellulose, since it largely retained the original fibrous structure. For several decades, there have been several attempts to create powder based on nitrocellulose, most often in mixtures with something mineral. Although hunting varieties of such powders were produced in small batches, an acceptable type of gunpowder was not developed. The main problem was the low homogeneity of nitrocellulose, since it largely retained the original fibrous structure.

    For gunpowder, uniformity and structure are the most important properties. The burning of gunpowder comes from the surface; Imagine a small ball of compressed powder, which reported burning.

    At first, a lot of powder will burn out on the surface of the ball, but with a decrease in the volume of the ball, the amount of burning powder will begin to decrease. The formula of the surface of the ball is 4πR2, from which it follows that even with a small decrease in the radius of the ball, its surface will decrease exponentially. In the same way, the burning rate of the powder will be significantly reduced. If all the powder is small balls, then when it burns, we will see the following picture: first, the pressure will increase greatly, and a large acceleration will be reported to the pool; but after burning out the first small portion of gunpowder, the pressure will drop, and at this time the bullet will only begin its movement along the bore. So it turns out that only the powder that burned at the very beginning will actually accelerate the bullet, and the core of the balls will be wasted.

    When you try to shoot a self-made powder with powder, the situation will be similar - small powder particles will first give high (and dangerous) pressure, and the rest will be wasted. From here and ruptures of trunks at self-mates; a person who knows chemistry would use nitrolak to form powder of grains of any desired shape (nitrolac is a solution of dinitrocellulose). Now imagine a cylinder of gunpowder with a hole along the axis. Combustion will occur both outside and inside, and a decrease in the surface area of ​​the burning powder from the outside will be compensated by an increase in the surface inside the cylinder. Finally, imagine that this cylinder is not one hole, but several. In this case, the powder will burn faster. Gunpowder, the burning area of ​​which decreases in the course of burning, is called degressive, the one whose area is increasing - progressive. Against this background, it becomes clear that fibrous, with mediocre homogeneity, nitrocellulose is of little use by itself as a powder. In 1884, P. Viel solved this problem quite gracefully - nitrocellulose was dissolved in solvents, after evaporation of which was no longer in the form of fibers, but in the form of a solid homogeneous mass. Subsequently, the process was simplified, and the solvent was added in a minimal amount in order to obtain a gel-like mixture (hence the name of the process — gelatinization of gunpowder). Grains of any desired shape could be formed from the product. Viel solved this problem quite gracefully - nitrocellulose was dissolved in solvents, after evaporation of which remained no longer in the form of fibers, but in the form of a solid homogeneous mass. Subsequently, the process was simplified, and the solvent was added in a minimal amount in order to obtain a gel-like mixture (hence the name of the process — gelatinization of gunpowder). Grains of any desired shape could be formed from the product. Viel solved this problem quite gracefully - nitrocellulose was dissolved in solvents, after evaporation of which remained no longer in the form of fibers, but in the form of a solid homogeneous mass. Subsequently, the process was simplified, and the solvent was added in a minimal amount in order to obtain a gel-like mixture (hence the name of the process — gelatinization of gunpowder). Grains of any desired shape could be formed from the product.

    If you are not at all interested in what makes smokeless powder, you should not look under the spoiler
    С технологической точки зрения для получения пороха теперь нужна была целлюлоза, азотная и серная кислота (сравн. с древесным углем, селитрой и серой). В качестве источника целлюлозы могла быть использована древесина, лучше и проще – хлопок. Производство серной кислоты к тому моменту было освоено полностью. Азотная же кислота получалась первоначально из все тех же нитратов – селитр, главным поставщиком которых были Чили (в виде NaNO3). В ходе Первой мировой немецкими инженерами был отлажен очень эффективный процесс получения азотной кислоты из атмосферного азота. Первоначально воздух (20% О2 и 80% N2) пропускался через раскаленный каменный уголь, который выгорал до СО. Угарный газ при взаимодействии с водяным паром давал водород CO + H2O = CO2 + H2, углекислый газ удалялся, и в итоге получалась смесь азота и водорода, из которой несложно было получить аммиак 3H2+N2=2NH3. Аммиак окислением переводился в оксиды азота и азотную кислоту. Т.о. теперь для получения азотной кислоты нужен был только уголь (как это не парадоксально звучит), а проблем с остальным сырьем – воздухом и водой — не могло быть. Вата, либо древесина, серная кислота и уголь – все, что оказалось нужно для индустриальной войны.

    In 1887, smokeless powder was improved by A. Nobel, who introduced nitroglycerin into its composition. From this point on, there were no technical difficulties with the gunpowder, since it was possible to get gunpowder of almost any power, with any speed and profile of combustion, also from non-deficient substances. In retrospect, you can look at the revolution that made smokeless powder:

    1. The smoke after the shot was insignificant, and the rate of fire could now be anything. It became possible real combat use of machine guns.
    2. The minimum powder residue later allowed to engage in the design of weapons with gas atvomatics, which became the main type of infantry weapons in the second half of the 20th century.
    3. Gunpowder was a new type of material - a polymer that was not affected by moisture, shaking, storage time, etc.
    4. The power of gunpowder is now limited only by the strength of the weapon and its knots. The simple use of the magazine rifles chambered with smokeless powder immediately increased the initial velocity of the bullet by 200 m / s.
    5. With a sufficient industrial level of the state’s development, the attachment of military production to imported mineral resources disappeared.

    On this occasion, you can give a small comment
    СССР был милитаризированным государством, и вся его промышленность была подчинена военным нуждам. Казалось бы, почему советский рынок потребительских товаров изобиловал хлопчатобумажными изделиями с откровенно низкими эксплуатационными характеристиками? Дело в том, что производство хлопка в Центральной Азии имело стратегический характер, а потому получало громадную поддержку со стороны государства. В случае войны центральноазиатский хлопок служил бы главным сырьем для производства пороха. В мирное же время хлопок в виде хлопчатобумажных изделий по возможности сбывался населению для понижения затратности поддержки мощностей по его производству. С распадом же СССР Россия лишилась главного источника целлюлозы. При этом ведущие страны или те, которые претендуют на такую роль, чаще всего имеют большие мощности по производству хлопка. В качестве альтернативы центарльноазиатскому хлопку уже давно рассматривается выращивание конопли. Конопля – привычная культура для восточных славян, царская Россия занимала лидирующее место в мире по ее производству. К сожалению, с 1960-х шло активное сокращение посевов конопли; в эпоху перестройки М. Горбачев планировал существенное увеличение производства конопли за счет сортов, не выделяющих ТГК. Но т.к. с такими сортами вопрос не был решен окончательно, все закончилось полным завершением выращивания конопли. Единственным возможным источником целлюлозы для России является древесина, но извлечение ее оттуда нельзя назвать самым лучшим процессом из возможных, а еще не закрывшиеся целлюлозно-бумажные комбинаты нуждаются в реконструкции.

    Soon, France was followed by other states, adopting a smaller caliber rifle chambered with smokeless powder; in the case of Germany, it was first a rifle obr.1888, which soon turned out to be replaced by a more sophisticated rifle of the 1898 Mauser design - known widely in popular culture Mauser and K98k (a sample of a rifle from the Third Reich era; a slightly different rifle was used in the First World War).

    These rifles were destined to have a very long life - most of them were put into service in the last decade of the 19th century, both world wars passed and occasionally continued to appear in Cold War conflicts. From the previous designs they were distinguished by the following features:

    1. Reduced caliber, usually approx. 0.3 inches.
    2. The use of smokeless powder.
    3. The presence of the store more perfect design.


    Thus, after gunpowder, the main innovation was the shop most often box-shaped, integral, simple, but effective in design. The spring-loaded feeder pushed the cartridges out of the store, and when moving, the bolt pushed one and sent it. When loading it was enough to open the bolt and with the help of the finished clip to load the weapon. Because the last operation took a minimum of time; the speed of loading the rifle with the whole clip corresponded to the speed of loading the weapon with one cartridge.


    As a result, a noticeable increase in the rate of fire was finally obtained; in fact, just the fear that the enemy will be able to shoot faster, and forced everywhere to introduce into service with this type of weapon.

    The cartridge used by magazine rifles is called rifle (or rifle-machine-gun), although this name is not characteristic. The cartridges for this weapon had an even longer life than the magazine rifles themselves. For example, the 7.62x54R cartridge introduced for the Mosin rifle still remains the only type of rifle in armies in the post-Soviet space, conquering all conceivable records of service life. The patron itself, of course, went through several significant upgrades in more than a century, although it retained many of its shortcomings. Let's look at the main characteristics of the stores:

    image

    By the beginning of the First World War, almost all of these rifles went through the first modernization. In the interwar period, infantry rifles were most often developed on their basis. Initially, in all countries rifles were produced in two versions - a full-sized infantry and a variant of cavalry carbine, the latter being produced an order of magnitude less than infantry.

    Only the infantry version was staffed with a bayonet most often. In the course of the First World War, experiments on shortening infantry rifles, using high-capacity detachable shops, etc. were actively conducted. but the bulk of the weapon still remained the same. Already, as a result of the war, it became clear that the rifle as a weapon had faded into the background compared to artillery, tanks and aircraft, and therefore in all countries there was a transition to infantry carbines - lightweight and shortened versions of the same systems.

    I would like to add a few words about the stores. You can often find bewilderment: why the store was made integral in store rifles. In fact, experiments with equipping rifles with detachable shops took place quite often, to recall at least the German version of the First World War.
    image
    Or the British Lee-Metford which was initially equipped with two stores.
    image
    But all these solutions did not become popular for a simple reason - with a small magazine capacity, charging the holder is much faster than changing the magazine. Moreover, the level of technology of that time did not allow cheap and fast production of interchangeable stores that would function reliably in any rifle. Finally, a magazine change is less convenient in the prone position, and the fact that the magazine itself stands for the profile of the weapon was considered undesirable.

    And since we started talking about rifles, I would like to talk about the myths associated with the Mosin rifle.

    Myth: the Mosin rifle is the best of the store rifles and far exceeds its time, the German rifle arr. 1898 especially. She and her patron are the pinnacle of perfection.
    На самом деле винтовки Мосина (3-х линейная винтовка обр. 1891) считались в царской армии порядком устаревшими еще до начала Первой мировой. Тем более, значительная часть оружейного парка была изношена в ходе русско-японской войны и революции 1905. Однако смена или хотя бы модернизация ее задерживалась, т.к. ожидалось принятие на вооружение самозарядной винтовки, хотя последняя так и не была доработана. Уже после Первой мировой и революции советское руководство без всякого энтузиазма отнеслось к перспективе замены или глубокой модернизации винтовок. Во-первых, возросло значение танков и авиации, а винтовка как оружие перешла на второй план – разумнее казалось вложение средств хотя бы в пулеметы, если речь идет о пехотном оружии. Во-вторых, считалось, что вскоре будет выработан достойный образец самозарядной винтовки, и уже в нем можно будет исправить все имеющиеся нарекания к пехотному оружию. Действительно, АВС-36, СВТ-38 и СВТ-40 содержали в себе массу улучшений (отъемный магазин большой емкости при сохранении возможности использования обойм, отъемный штык-нож, умеренная длина оружия и т.п.), но по массовости никогда так и не смогли сравняться с винтовкой Мосина. В-третьих, глубокая модернизация (а проекты существовали, в частности Н. Холодовского) потребовала бы значительных средств, сопоставимых с изготовлением новой винтовки, но модернизированный образец все равно бы уступал абсолютно новому. Поэтому было решено ограничиться средней модернизацией. Уже в эпоху Второй мировой, когда согласно поговорке жареный петух клюнул, наконец был выработан существенно модернизированный образец – карабин обр. 1944, однако главный противник СССР в войне – Германия – провела аналогичную модернизацию на десятилетие раньше. Собственно, что же вызывало нарекания в винтовке Мосина?

    1. Пристрелка со штыком. Прицел винтовки был рассчитан на примкнутый штык, и штык всегда должен был быть примкнут к оружию. Это удлиняло и без того длинную винтовку выше всяких мер. При этом во всех европейских армиях, кроме французской, еще на конец 19-го века винтовки были пристреляны без штыка, т.е. в бою были короче и удобнее. Решение это было полностью оправдано из-за крайнего уменьшения роли холодного оружия в войне. В таком случае, почему царские военные сделали выбор именно в пользу пристрелки со штыком? Единственным реальным аргументом был следующий: если противник пойдет в штыковую атаку на строй русских войск, у последних будет возможность постоянно вести огонь до последнего и сразу нанести удар штыком при приближении врага. Если же штыки придется примыкать по ходу атаки врага, то на это потратится время, эквивалентное одному-двум залпам, а удар штыком нельзя будет произвести так сразу. Т.к. к началу 20-го века стало ясно, что такой вариант маловероятен, в Оружейном отделе ГАУ постоянно шли ожесточенные споры по поводу злосчастного штыка, но к единому мнению военные так и не пришли даже к моменту наступления Первой мировой. В своей последней модернизации, а именно в виде карабина обр. 1944 винтовка Мосина все же получила простой компромиссный вариант – штык был сделан откидным; т.о., он всегда был при оружии и мог быть очень быстро переведен в боевое положение.

    2. Игольчатый штык вместо клинкового. Сам по себе игольчатый штык является занятным примером пропаганды. В царской России игольчатый штык позиционировался как более гуманное оружие, оставляющее наименее тяжелые раны по сравнению с клинковым. Позже игольчатый штык начал позиционироваться наоборот, как смертельное оружие, раны от которого не заживают. Главным же недостатком игольчатого штыка была его малая практическая полезность – если штык-нож безусловно пригодился бы солдату в быту, то с игольчатым штыком приходилось отягощать себя и штыком на винтовке и ножом для бытовых целей.

    3. Эргономика оружия по сравнению с иностранными аналогами вызывала нарекания – длина оружия, угол приклада, предохранитель, тугой спуск без предупреждения, способ крепления штыка, ложевые кольца и т.п.

    Myth: Store rifles are sniper rifles by modern standards.
    В массовой культуре магазинные винтовки часто воспринимаются как почти готовые снайперские винтовки современности – кажется, что достаточно смонтировать оптический прицел на винтовку Мосина, и получится аналог Remington 700, а может, и лучше. Не последнюю роль сыграли игры, в которых магазинная винтовка обычно точное оружие, наносящее критический урон, против неточного автомата, наносящего маленький урон. На самом же деле магазинные винтовки были оружием своего поколения и в корне отличались по удобству стрельбы от современного оружия, тем более снайперского. Скажем, советская СВД (по сути своей являющаяся не классической снайперской винтовкой, а оружием поддержки отделения – об этом позже) предоставляет значительно меньшие требования к навыкам стрелка, чем винтовка Мосина. Нельзя не упомянуть и о точности. В рамках стандартной проверки боя требования к карабину обр. 1944, 7.62-мм автомату АК и 5.45-мм АК-74 выдвигаются совершенно одинаковые – 3 или 4 попадания в круге диаметром 15см на 100 метровой дистанции. Для снайперского варианта винтовки Мосина и СВД выдвигается требование 4-х попаданий в круг 8см. Конечно, профессионал высокого уровня может выбрать из большого числа винтовку Мосина, дошедшую до наших дней в наилучшем состоянии, произвести отладку и с хорошими боеприпасами, будучи сам отличным стрелком, добиться неплохих результатов. Однако, сама по себе винтовка Мосина не более чем стандартное оружие пехоты эпохи двух мировых войн.

    Initially, I wanted to fit the text in two parts, but, alas, the magazine weapon required too much text to describe. So there will be a third part, devoted mostly to automatic weapons of the 20th century.

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